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20 May 2019, Volume 37 Issue 3 Previous Issue    Next Issue

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Challenges and Possible Solutions for Children 0-3 Years Old in Poor Rural China Yue Ai, Cai Jianhua, Bai Yu, Tang Lei, Shi Yaojiang, Luo Renfu, Scott Rozelle 2019, 37 (3):  1-16.  doi: 10.16382/j.cnki.1000-5560.2019.03.001 Abstract ( 332 )   HTML ( 136 )   PDF (691KB) ( 1214 )   Save Brain development during the first 1000 days of life is critical and has the greatest return to investment. This paper describes the challenges for cognitive, language and social emotional development, as well as health, for children 0-3 years old in rural China. Based on the result of randomized control trials on early childhood development, we also offer some possible solutions to address these challenges. We find that almost half of the children surveyed in rural China are at risk for cognitive delays, and the risk of delay increases over time. The reason behind this is that caregivers in poor rural areas overall do not engage in interactive parenting practices; they are also at risk for depression and do not engage in proper feeding practices. Only 13 percent of the caregivers tell stories to their children using story books. In addition, 23.5 percent of caregivers experience depression. Most of the caregivers also lack knowledge of proper feeding practices for young children. Based on these findings, this study proposes that policy makers implement home visiting programs, establish early childhood development centers and develop other policy solutions to address these problems. It's hoped that the government can consider the circumstances of rural children and increase investment in early childhood development, which can help solve the high rates of developmental delays among rural children and promote human capital development. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Status and Determinants of Early Childhood CognitiveDevelopment in Poor Rural China Li Ying Jia Miqi Zheng Wenting Tang Lei Bai Yu 2019, 37 (3):  17-32.  doi: 10.16382/j.cnki.1000-5560.2019.03.002 Abstract ( 491 )   HTML ( 135 )   PDF (640KB) ( 1529 )   Save With the rapid aging population and economic globalization, cognitive capital has become critical for sustainable economic development in China. Early childhood cognitive development has a lasting impact later in life, which is vital to China's national development. The current study used the Bayley Scale of Infant and Toddler Development Ⅲ to study a sample of children in impoverished areas of western China. We used this data to describe the status of early childhood development in China and analyze determinants of cognitive development during early childhood. The results show that cognitive developmental delays are common among rural children in underdeveloped areas. The proportion of children showing developmental delays is 40% and above. It also reveals significant rural-urban differences, with urban children tending to show higher levels of cognitive development (The proportion of children showing developmental delays is 25.53% in urban areas and 43.78% in rural areas). Our findings also show that parenting behavior and parenting knowledge of caregivers are closely related to the level of infants' cognitive development. However, when controlling for Hukou type, the relationship between parenting behavior and cognitive development becomes insignificant. We believe this may be due to the difference between urban and rural areas in both the "quality and quantity" of parenting behaviors. To bridge this gap, it's suggested that the Chinese government not only strengthen and improve public policies and service systems for the development of children aged 0-3, but also invest in education and parenting training to ensure that caregivers pay more attention to cultivating awareness, knowledge, and good behavior in their children. All this can help to effectively improve the status of children's early cognitive development in rural areas. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Trend and Risk Factors of Early Childhood Social Emotional Development: Based on the Survey Findings from Poor Rural China Li Shanshan, Wang Boya, Chen Peng, Tang Lei, Shi Yaojiang 2019, 37 (3):  33-46.  doi: 10.16382/j.cnki.1000-5560.2019.03.003 Abstract ( 309 )   HTML ( 102 )   PDF (649KB) ( 1022 )   Save The overall improved quality of the population is a critical factor of sustained economic development. It is of great significance to improve the level of social emotional development of infants in rural China. Social emotion, as an important component of early childhood development, is the basis for human capital development. In this study, which focuses on the social-emotional development of children in rural China, infants 6-24 months old were randomly selected. Using Age and Stages Questionnaires:Social-Emotion, we study the current and future development and factors affecting the development of infants' social emotion in poor rural China. The results show that 44.18% of the infants have social emotional developmental delays in baseline, and the proportion of children with such delays increases to 63.38% in the following-up data. The level of social emotional development of girls is better than that of boys. We also discovered that mothers played an important role in promoting social emotional development of infants both in baseline and following-up survey. In addition, good parenting behavior plays an important role in promoting the social development of infants. In order to promote the development of infants and young children in poor rural areas, the government needs to increase investment in early childhood development, disseminate relevant information in rural areas to increase awareness, fundamentally change parenting in rural areas, provide more local employment opportunities for mothers in rural areas, and ultimately promote the healthy development of infants' social emotion. Finally, it is advisable to strengthen the assessment of early childhood development projects and explore an intervention model suitable for families in rural China. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Status and Determinants of Early Childhood Language Development in Poverty Areas in Western China Wang Boya Li Shanshan Yue Ai LI Ying Shi Yaojiang 2019, 37 (3):  47-57.  doi: 10.16382/j.cnki.1000-5560.2019.03.004 Abstract ( 286 )   HTML ( 121 )   PDF (571KB) ( 864 )   Save Language acquisition is a key component of early childhood development (ECD) during the first three years of a child's life, when most brain development occurs. Speech and language development are good indicators of overall cognitive development, academic performance, education level, work performance and physical, mental health, and non-cognitive ability in the future. The current study selected a sample of children in impoverished areas of Northwest China and used the Bayley Scale of Infant and Toddler Development Ⅲ to measure the level of early childhood language development. It also examined the relevance of other language scales to the Bayley Scale of Infant and Toddler Development Ⅲ in order to find a cost-effective scale to measure early childhood language development. The early language development delay risks were common among 6-36 months sample children, and 57% of the sample infants had language development delay. Moreover, there was a significant gap between the rural and urban area. Gender, premature birth, economic conditions and Hukou type were the risk factors which were related to early childhood language development. Besides, parenting knowledge and parenting behavior were significantly positively correlated with early childhood language development.We also found that both Putonghua Communicative Development Inventory-Short Form and Age & stage Questionnaires-3 (communication) had significantly positive correlations with Bayley-Ⅲ language domain. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Current Status and Influencing Factors of Infant Anemia in Poor Rural Areas of Western China Nie Jingchun Yang Jie Zhang Lifang Li Ying Yang Jiuyou 2019, 37 (3):  58-69.  doi: 10.16382/j.cnki.1000-5560.2019.03.005 Abstract ( 231 )   HTML ( 25 )   PDF (1112KB) ( 588 )   Save This study analyzed the occurrence and influencing factors of iron deficiency anemia among 4,722 infants aged 6-37 months from poor rural areas of Western China. The data show that infant anemia is still a high incidence problem in poor rural areas of Western China, with an average of 44.4% of infants suffering from anemia. For infants aged 6-12 months, the anemia rate is even as high as 49.7%, but mainly mild anemia. The anemia status of infants and young children did not improve with the age of month, yet showed a slight upward trend in different years. Research suggests that anemia at 6-12 months of age is significantly correlated with their subsequent development. All of these facts indicate that interventions are needed to improve anemia of infants and young children in poor rural areas of Western China. The analysis of influencing factors shows that the most important factor is the feeding behavior of the caregivers. We should actively seek and establish effective channels to provide nutritional and health knowledge to infant and child's caregivers, provide social support for infant and child feeding environment, and improve the feeding behavior of caregivers, so as to promote the healthy growth of infants and children. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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An Empirical Study on the Status of Rural Parenting Behavior and its Influence in Poor Rural China Bai Yu, Zheng Lijuan, Liu Buyao, Yang Ning, Chen Peng 2019, 37 (3):  70-83.  doi: 10.16382/j.cnki.1000-5560.2019.03.006 Abstract ( 295 )   HTML ( 113 )   PDF (617KB) ( 1123 )   Save Human capital is an important driving force for economic development. Early infant development is crucial to the improvement of human capital. Using the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development I (BSID I) and the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development Ⅲ (BSID Ⅲ), as well as measures of family environment, we examined rates of developmental delays among 3,991 children aged 0-3 years old and the parenting practice of their caregivers in rural areas of three provinces in China. We used OLS analysis to examine the relationship between parental behavior and developmental delays. Our analysis shows the following results. First, there is a general lack of positive parenting behavior in rural infant and young children. The proportion of parent-child interactions (e.g. storytelling, singing, reading) was less than 40%, and the incidence of negative parenting behaviors (e.g. shouting or roaring or taking away toys while disciplining the child) was more than 40%. Second, whether the mother is the primary caregiver, mother's age, mother's education level and family asset value significantly are significantly correlated with parenting behaviors. Third, rural infants show high rates of developmental delay. 41% of infants in the total sample have cognitive delays, 58% have language delays, 29% have motor delays, and 58% have social emotional delays. These delays are negatively correlated with positive parenting behaviors and positively correlated with negative parenting behaviors. Based on these findings, primary caregivers for infants should adopt positive parenting behaviors and engage in parent-child interaction activities with infants to provide a high-quality parenting environment. Also, policy makers should increase investment in early development for infants in poor rural areas of China. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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An Empirical Study on the Status and Determinants of Infant and Toddler Feeding Practices in Poor Rural Areas of China Tang Lei Luo Xia Li Ying Nie Jingchun Yang Jiyou Liu Han 2019, 37 (3):  84-96.  doi: 10.16382/j.cnki.1000-5560.2019.03.007 Abstract ( 412 )   HTML ( 28 )   PDF (826KB) ( 807 )   Save The early years of children's life is the most critical period that determines their health and ability development, and will have lasting effects on their survival, growth, development, human capital accumulation and adulthood income levels. In this study, we used baseline and follow-up survey data of 1,802 children aged 6-30 months old and their families from rural areas of Qinba Mountain, and analyzed the status and determinants of the feeding practices of primary caregivers of the sample children by descriptive analysis and a logistic regression model. We found that rural caregivers in the Qinba mountain stopped breastfeeding too early and relied too much on formula feeding. Regarding the complementary feeding, the proportion of the children who achieved the minimum food diversity in the sample area was 36%, which is lower than the average value of rural areas in other East Asian and Pacific countries (56.7%), but much higher than the average value of rural areas in Africa and South Asia (14.1%-23.7%). One possible reason for the poor feeding practices is that the rural caregivers lacked reliable sources of knowledge and information. In addition, there was a significant positive correlation between feeding practices and caregivers' education levels. It is thus a necessary and important research direction to explore the ways to provide knowledge and guidance on children's feeding practices for rural caregivers, especially those with lower education levels. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Effects of Caregiver Depression on Parenting Behaviors in Poor Rural China Yang Jie Jiang Qi Yue Ai Tang Lei Nie Jingchun 2019, 37 (3):  97-106.  doi: 10.16382/j.cnki.1000-5560.2019.03.008 Abstract ( 326 )   HTML ( 121 )   PDF (670KB) ( 762 )   Save Depression is a common psychological disorder among caregivers of young children, which can adversely affect their parenting behavior and disrupt healthy early child development. In order to assess the prevalence of caregiver depression and analyze its effects on parenting behavior, we conducted a large-scale survey with 1,798 caregivers with children aged 6-24 months in China's Qinba Mountain region. Participants were asked to complete both the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21) as well as household surveys describing their socioeconomic backgrounds and caregiving behaviors. We had three main findings. First, the overall depression rate of caregivers is 22.90%, with depression among grandmothers as the principal caregivers 10.11% higher than that of mothers as principal caregivers. Second, the education level and family assets of caregivers were significantly negatively correlated with depression, and the age of caregivers was significantly positively correlated with depression. Children who were male, older, or had lagging language development were also significantly more likely to have caregivers who had depression. Third, caregiver depression significantly reduced positive parenting behaviors and increased negative parenting behaviors. Our results confirm the high prevalence of caregiver depression and its effects on caregiver behaviors, which may have significant consequences on early child development in China. Thus, policies and strategies comprehensively addressing the varied socioeconomic risk factors for caregiver depression, especially age and education, are needed. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Current Situation Analysis and Strategy Suggestions for Early Child Development in China Cui Yujie, Zhang Yunting, Zhao Jin, Zhang Zichen, Wang Xuelai, Huang Xiaona, Li Guohong, Jiang Fan 2019, 37 (3):  107-117.  doi: 10.16382/j.cnki.1000-5560.2019.03.009 Abstract ( 417 )   HTML ( 117 )   PDF (1318KB) ( 1021 )   Save Children in China at present are beginning a new stage, from survival to development, driven by the economic growth and social development. As there is a common understanding of the concept of early child development (ECD), we analyzed the current situation of ECD in China based on the national conditions and international experiences. Great progress in several fields of ECD has been made, including policy support, service system and projects. The number of high-risk children has fallen sharply and gaps in health indicators have been bridged between western and eastern China in the past few years. However, imbalance of development between urban and rural children still exists, especially in poor areas. Compared to the developed countries, there are several gaps of ECD in China, like family nurturing. It's suggested that, in the future, working orientation of ECD should be clarified and the service system, including coordination, financing, incentives and information construction, should be improved in order to promote ECD in China. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Benefit-Cost Calculations of Government Investment into Early Childhood Development in Rural China Wang Lei, Xian Yue, Zhang Siqi, Bai Yu, Dorien Emmers, Menno Pradhan, Scott Rozelle 2019, 37 (3):  118-128.  doi: 10.16382/j.cnki.1000-5560.2019.03.010 Abstract ( 324 )   HTML ( 121 )   PDF (575KB) ( 1352 )   Save One of the primary goals of Early Childhood Development (ECD) initiatives is to prepare children for their eventual participation in elementary school and beyond. It is well known that a large share of ECD's benefits is realized through higher enrollment, less dropout and higher performance. Governments in low and middle-income countries, however, often do not know the value of such investments and are seeking knowledge of the returns to state-supported ECD programs. This paper uses a World Bank-produced ECD calculator to estimate the economic benefits of early child development (ECD) programs in China. According to our findings, which utilize high quality data that are shown in the paper supported by academic research or government source of information, the returns to investment in economic terms are high. We find that the benefit-cost ratio is from 4.2 to 8.4. Such returns are shown to be higher than many other government-supported initiatives and are equally as high as those found in many other countries. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Home Visiting Program and Public Policies for the Early Childhood Development: Lessons from Brazil Osmar Terra, TANG Lei, LI Ying, ZHENG Wenting, SHI Yaojiang 2019, 37 (3):  134-148.  doi: 10.16382/j.cnki.1000-5560.2019.03.012 Abstract ( 263 )   HTML ( 117 )   PDF (2091KB) ( 695 )   Save The beginning of living systems sets the stage for every aspect of an organism's internal and external functioning throughout the lifespan and is the period when the brain has the greatest plasticity. Early childhood investments have the highest individual and social returns compared to later investments. Countries around the world have recognized the importance of establishing public policies for early childhood development (ECD). Among the middle-income countries, Brazil is one of the pioneers in such policies. Brazilian government launched a pioneering ECD program, PIM program, followed by a national ECD program, the Happy Child Program, and has set up a dedicated government department to fund and promote the program. This paper summarizes the lessons learned from Brazilian government's 15 years of experience in ECD projects, particularly its experiences in the home-visiting and the cross-sectoral collaboration. Specifically, there are three pillars for the program. First, the alliance of national and local governments. Such alliances are based on specific local characteristics and needs, with the long-term technical and financial support from the state, and through coordination of actions. The cross-sectoral collaboration strengthens the program by promoting the exchange and dissemination of successful experiences in specific areas. Second, community participation is critical. Community involvement promotes family involvement, awareness of the importance of ECD, and a network of joint efforts. Third, the family is the core element of the successful implementation of ECD projects. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Early Childhood Development Program: Practice and Policy Promotion in Latin America Norbort Schady, Xian Yue, Wang Lei, Bai Yu 2019, 37 (3):  149-156.  doi: 10.16382/j.cnki.1000-5560.2019.03.013 Abstract ( 259 )   HTML ( 99 )   PDF (1755KB) ( 869 )   Save The first 1,000 days are crucial for brain development and the investment in this period of time has the greatest return relative to other life stages. In Latin American countries such as Mexico and Peru, although children's health and nutrition have greatly improved, they have not sufficiently developed in terms of cognition, language and social-emotional, and there has been a high rate of delay in early childhood development (ECD). In order to solve this problem, Latin American countries have been making continuous efforts to promote the early childhood development, such as the "Home Visit Program". Based on the experience of ECD programs conducted in Latin American countries (Jamaica Project, which was a pilot ECD program, and Peru SAF Project, which was a model of ECD policy promotion), this paper makes a in-depth analysis of the impact evaluation of ECD program and provides some revelation for Chinese government to make ECD polices in rural China. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Investments in Human Capital in Early Childhood: Economic Theory, Data, and Implications for the Design of Parenting Program Flavio Cunha, Li Shanshan, Wang Boya, Jiang Qi, Yue Ai 2019, 37 (3):  157-163.  doi: 10.16382/j.cnki.1000-5560.2019.03.014 Abstract ( 250 )   HTML ( 115 )   PDF (483KB) ( 937 )   Save Investments in early childhood have significant economic benefits in the future labor market. This paper tries to find out the ways to improve family investment in early childhood development by analyzing the characteristics of human capital formation and reasons why families may not adequately invest in early childhood development. It also introduces the background, intervention methods and effects of the Lena Initiative for Early Childhood Development. Based on the results of existing investment projects, it's hoped that the Chinese government can further increase its investment in the field of early childhood development, promote the comprehensive development of children, and foster the human capital development of children in poor rural areas. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Promoting Early Childhood Development: From Individual to Society Gary Darmstadt, Yang Jie, Nie Jingchun, An Qi, Liu Kai, Shi Yaojiang 2019, 37 (3):  164-172.  doi: 10.16382/j.cnki.1000-5560.2019.03.015 Abstract ( 384 )   HTML ( 118 )   PDF (1262KB) ( 785 )   Save A number of research results show that early childhood development has a long-term impact on individual physical development, brain development, mental health, and even affects the health and well-being of the next generation. Data show that nearly 250 million children in low and middle-income countries around the world are at risk-in extreme poverty or underdevelopment -and that their development is key to economic growth, social equity and the well-being of all people. Nursing during pregnancy and lactation, popularization of feeding knowledge, implementation of responsive nursing care and attention to mental health can effectively improve the nutrition and health status of pregnant women and infants. This paper, first deals with the early childhood brain development rules and the risk involved, then systematically describes the effective early childhood development intervention from the aspect of content of the intervention, government involvement and intervention cost effectiveness. In conclusion, it points out the importance of government involvement in early childhood development, thus providing new inspiration for future research. References | Related Articles | Metrics